Modern interpretations of Islamic texts advocate the
unification of religion and state ruled by a
Caliph. Such a polity has not existed since the early Islamic city-states and universal imperial period beginnings. The common slogan
al-islam dinun was dawlatun` (translation: Islam is a religion and a state) is neither a Koranic verse nor a quote from the
hadith, but a 19th century political
Salafi slogan popularized in opposition to Western Egyptian influence.
[1] Such a recent origin was a handicap for a belief system bound by the scripture revealed, and the ways of those who lived, twelve centuries earlier.
Islamic Origins
In
pre-Islamic Arabia Arab people lived in the
Arabian Plate. In the south of
Hedjaz (principal religious and commercial centre of Middle Ages Arabia),
the Arabic tribe of
Quraysh (
Adnani Arabs), to which
Mohammed belonged, had been in existence. Near Mecca, the tribe was increasing in power. The Quraysh were the guardians of the
Kaaba within the town of
Mecca and was the dominant tribe of Mecca upon the appearance of Islam. The Kaaba was an important
pagan shrine. It brought revenues to Mecca because of the multitude of pilgrims that it attracted. Muhammad was born into the
Banu Hashim tribe of the Quraysh clan,
[4] a branch of the
Banu Kinanah tribe, descended from
Khuzaimah and derived its inheritance from the
Khuza'imah (House of Khuza'a).
Muhammad Kaaban
Nakkaş Osman, Istanbul (1595)
(Ed., note artists began representing the veil-covered face of Muhammad from the 16th century onwards)
According to the traditional Islamic view, the Qur'an (Koran) began with
revelations to Muhammad (when he was 40 years old) in 610. The
history of the Qur'an began when its verses were revealed to the
Sahabah during Muhammad's life. The rise of Islam began around the time the Muslims took flight in the
Hijra, moving to Medina. With Islam,
blood feuds among the Arabs lessened. Compensation was paid in money rather than blood or only the culprit was executed.
In 628, the Makkah tribe of Quraish and the Muslim community in Medina signed a truce called the
Treaty of Hudaybiyya beginning a ten-year period of peace. War returned when the Quraish and their allies, the tribe of 'Bakr', attacked the tribe of 'Khuza'ah', who were Muslim allies. In 630, Muslims conquered
Mecca. Muhammad died in June 632. The
Battle of Yamama was fought in December of the same year, between the forces of the first
caliph Abu Bakr and
Musailima.
[edit]City-states and Imperial period
After Muhammed died, a series of Caliphs governed the Islamic State:
Abu Bakr (632-634),
Umar ibn al-Khattab (Umar І, 634-644),
Uthman ibn Affan (644-656),
Ali ibn Abi Talib (656-661). These leaders are known as the "
Rashidun" or "rightly guided" Caliphs in
Sunni Islam. They oversaw the initial phase of the
Muslim conquests, advancing through
Persia,
Egypt, the Middle East and North Africa. Begun in the time of Uthman ibn Affan, the
compilation of the Qur'an was finished sometime between 650 and 656, Uthman sent copies to the different centers of the expanding Islamic empire. From then on, thousands of Muslim scribes began copying the Qur'an.
[5] Afterwards, factions arose and the last three Rashidun caliphs were murdered. The death of Uthman was followed by a civil war known as the
First Fitna, and the succession to Ali ibn Abi Talib was disputed, leading to the split between the
Sunni and
Shia sects, and later to competing caliphates when the descendants of Muhammad through his daughter
Fatimah and Ali set up separate
Fatimid societies.
After the peace treaty with Ali's son,
Hassan ibn Ali, and the suppression of the revolt of the
Kharijites,
[6] Muawiyah I proclaimed himself Caliph in 661 and began consolidating power.
[7] In 663, a new Kharijite revolt resulted in the death of their chief.
[7] In 664, Muawiyah and
Ziyad ibn Abi Sufyan reached an agreement: the Caliph recognised Ziyad as a brother and appointed him governor at
Basra. Ziyad took the name ibn Abi Sufyan. Muawiyah arranged for his son
Yazid I to be appointed caliph on his death, which came in 680.
Husain ibn Ali, by then Muhammad's only living grandson, refused to swear allegiance to Yazid. He was killed in the
Battle of Karbala the same year, an event still mourned by Muslims on the
Day of Ashura. Unrest continued in the
Second Fitna, but Muslim rule was extended under Muawiyah to
Rhodes,
Crete,
Kabul,
Bukhara, and
Samarkand, and expanded in North Africa. In 664, Arab armies conquered
Kabul,
[8]and in 665 pushed into the
Maghreb.
[9]
- Succession and Umayyad accession
-
-
- Consult particular article for details
[edit]The Umayyad Caliphate
| City-states and Imperial period |
|---|
Conquest
Arabs/Saracens/Up to the death of Mohammed, 632
Under the first three caliphs, 632–656
Ommiad Califs, 661-750
Boundary
of the Califate
of the East Roman (Byzantine) Empire
|
The
Umayyad dynasty (or
Ommiads), whose name derives from
Umayya ibn Abd Shams, the great-grandfather of the first Umayyad caliph, ruled from 661 to 750. Although the Umayyad family came from the city of
Mecca,
Damascus was the capital. After the death of
Abdu'l-Rahman ibn Abu Bakr in 666,
[10][11] Muawiyah I consolidated his power. Muawiyah I moved his capital to Damascus from
Medina, which led to profound changes in the empire. In the same way, at a later date, the transfer of the Caliphate from Damascus to Baghdad marked the accession of a new family to power.
The Umayyads viewed Islam as a religion exclusively for Arabs. The Umayyads paid for the state by taxing the
Dhimmis. A non-Arab who wanted to convert was supposed to first become a client of an Arab tribe. Even after conversion, non-Arabs (
mawali) did not achieve social and economic equality.
[edit]Caliphs at Damascus
-
-
- Consult particular article for details
Muawiyah beautified Damascus, and developed a court to rival that of
Constantinople. He expanded the frontiers of the empire, reaching the edge of Constantinople at one point, though the
Byzantines drove him back and he was unable to hold any territory in
Anatolia.
Sunni Muslims credit him with saving the fledgling Muslim nation from post-
civil war anarchy. However,
Shia Muslims accuse him of instigating the war, weakening the Muslim nation by dividing the
Ummah, fabricating self-aggrandizing
heresies[13] slandering
the Prophet's family
[14] and even selling his Muslim critics into slavery in the Byzantine empire.
[15] One of Muawiyah's most controversial and enduring legacies was his decision to designate his son Yazid as his successor. According to Shi'a doctrine, this was a clear violation of the treaty he made with Hasan ibn Ali.
During the caliphate of
Yazid, Muslims suffered several setbacks. In 682 AD Yazid restored
Uqba ibn Nafi as the governor of North Africa. Uqba won battles against the
Berbers and
Byzantines.
[16] From there Uqba marched thousands of miles westward towards
Tangier, where he reached the
Atlantic coast, and then marched eastwards through the
Atlas Mountains.
[17] With about 300
cavalrymen, he proceeded towards Biskra where he was ambushed by a Berber force under Kaisala. Uqba and all his men died fighting. The Berbers attacked and drove Muslims from north Africa for a period.
[18] They also lost supremacy at sea, and had to abandon the islands of
Rhodes and
Crete.
The period under
Muawiya II was marked by civil wars (
Second Fitna). This would ease in the reign of
Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan, a well-educated and capable ruler. Despite the many political problems that impeded his rule, all important records were translated into Arabic. In his reign, a
currency for the Muslim world was minted. This led to war with the Byzantine Empire under
Justinian II (
Battle of Sebastopolis) in 692 in
Asia Minor. The Byzantines were decisively defeated by the Caliph after the defection of a large contingent of
Slavs. The Islamic currency was then made the exclusive currency in the Muslim world. He reformed agriculture and commerce. Abd al-Malik consolidated Muslim rule and extended it, made Arabic the state language, and organized a regular
postal service.
Umayyad Mosque
The
Great Mosque of Damascus was built by Al-Walid; completed by the time of the succession of Sulayman.
Al-Walid I began the next stage of Islamic conquests. Under him the early Islamic empire reached its farthest extent. He reconquered parts of Egypt from the Byzantine Empire and moved on into
Carthage and across to the west of North Africa. Muslim armies under
Tariq ibn Ziyad crossed the
Strait of Gibraltar and began to conquer
Spain using North African
Berberarmies. The
Visigoths of Spain were defeated when the Umayyad conquered
Lisbon. Spain was the farthest extent of Islamic control of Europe (they were stopped at the
Battle of Tours). In the east, Islamic armies under
Muhammad bin Qasim made it as far as the
Indus Valley. Under Al-Walid, the caliphate empire stretched from Spain to India.
Al-Hajjaj bin Yousefplayed a crucial role in the organization and selection of military commanders. Al-Walid paid great attention to the expansion of an organized military, building the strongest navy in the Ummayad era., This tactic was crucial for the expansion to Spain. His reign is considered to be the apex of Islamic power.
Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik was hailed as caliph the day al-Walid died. He appointed
Yazid ibn al-Muhallab governor of
Mesopotamia. Sulayman ordered the arrest and execution of the family of
al-Hajjaj, one of two prominent leaders (the other was
Qutaibah bin Muslim) who had supported the succession of al-Walid's son Yazid, rather than Sulayman. Al-Hajjaj had predeceased al-Walid, so he posed no threat. Qutaibah renounced allegiance to Sulayman, though his troops rejected his appeal to revolt. They killed him and sent his head to Sulayman. Sulayman did not move to
Damascus on becoming Caliph, remaining in
Ramla. Sulayman sent
Maslamah ibn Abd al-Malik to attack the Byzantine capital (
siege of Constantinople). The intervention of
Bulgaria on the Byzantine side proved decisive. The Muslims sustained heavy losses. Sulayman died suddenly in 717.
Sulayman's successor
Umar II strictly enforced
Sharia.
[19] He abolished the
Jizya tax for converts, who had been taxed even after conversion under other Umayyad rulers. Umar II ordered the first official
collection of hadith material, fearing that some might be lost.
Abu Bakr ibn Muhammad ibn Hazm and
Ibn Shihab al-Zuhri are among those who did so.
[20] Umar also sent Ibn Hatim ibn al-Nu'man to repel Turks invading
Azerbaijan. He faced
Kharijite uprising and preferred negotiations to armed conflict, personally holding talks with two Kharijite envoys shortly before his death. He recalled the troops besieging Constantinople, a serious blow to Umayyad prestige.
Yazid II came to power on the death of Umar II. Yazid fought the Kharijites, with whom Umar had been negotiating, and killed the Kharijite leader Shawdhab. In Yazid's reign, civil wars began in different parts of the empire.
[21] Yazid expanded the Caliphate's territory into the Caucasus, before dying in 724. Inheriting the caliphate from his brother,
Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik ruled an empire with many problems. He was effective in addressing these problems, and in allowing the Umayyad empire to continue as an entity. His long rule was an effective one, and renewed reforms introduced by Umar II. Under Hisham's rule, regular raids against the Byzantines continued. In North Africa, Kharijite teachings combined with local restlessness to produce a significant
Berber revolt. He was also faced with a revolt by
Zayd bin Ali. Hisham suppressed both revolts. The Abbasids continued to gain power in Khurasan and Iraq. However, they were not strong enough to make a move yet. Some were caught and punished or executed by eastern governors. The
Battle of Akroinon, a decisive Byzantine victory, was during the final campaign of the Umayyad dynasty.
[22] Hisham died in 743.
Al-Walid II saw political intrigue during his reign.
Yazid III spoke out against his cousin Walid's "immorality" which included discrimination on behalf of the
Banu Qays Arabs against
Yemenis and
non-Arab Muslims, and Yazid received further support from the Qadariya and Murji'iya (believers in human
free will).
[23] Walid was shortly thereafter deposed in a
coup.
[24] Yazid disbursed funds from the treasury and acceded to the Caliph. He explained that he had rebelled on behalf of the Book of Allah and the Sunna. Yazid reigned for only six months, while various groups refused allegiance and dissident movements arose, after which he died.
Ibrahim ibn al-Walid, named heir apparent by his brother Yazid III, ruled for a short time in 744, before he abdicated.
Marwan II ruled from 744 until he was killed in 750. He was the last Umayyad ruler to rule from Damascus. Marwan named his two sons Ubaydallah and Abdallah heirs. He appointed governors and asserted his authority by force. Anti-Umayyad feeling was very prevalent, especially in Iran and Iraq. The Abbasids had gained much support. Marwan's reign as caliph was almost entirely devoted to trying to keep the Umayyad empire together. His death signalled the end of Umayyad rule in the East, and was followed by the massacre of Umayyads by the Abbasids. Almost the entire Umayyad dynasty was killed, except for the talented prince
Abd ar-Rahman who escaped to Spain and founded a dynasty there.
[edit]Universal period and decentralization
[edit]Islamic Golden Age
| Islamic States |
|---|
| Universal Golden period |
|---|
Eastern hemisphere's States and Empires (820)
|
| Decentralized territory |
|---|
Regions are approximate, consult particular article for details.
|
Baghdad became the capital (moved Damascus) due to the importance placed by the Abbasids upon eastern affairs in
Persia and
Transoxania.
[29] At this time the caliphate showed signs of fracture amid the rise of regional dynasties. Although the Ummayad family had been killed by the revolting Abbasids, one family member,
Abd ar-Rahman I, escaped to Spain and established an independent caliphate there in 756. In the
Maghreb, Harun al-Rashid appointed the Arab
Aghlabids as virtually autonomous rulers, although they continued to recognise central authority. Aghlabid rule was short-lived, and they were deposed by the
Shiite Fatimid dynasty in 909. By around 960, the Fatimids had conquered Abbasid Egypt, building a capital there in 973 called "
al-Qahirah" (meaning "the planet of victory", known today as
Cairo). In Persia the
Turkic Ghaznavids snatched power from the Abbasids.
[30][31]Abbasid influence had been consumed by the
Great Seljuq Empire (a Muslim Turkish clan which had migrated into mainland Persia) by 1055.
[29]
Expansion continued, sometimes by force, sometimes by peaceful
proselytising.
[25] The first stage in the
conquest of India began just before the year 1000. By some 200 (from 1193 — 1209) years later, the area up to the
Ganges river had fallen. In sub-Saharan West Africa, Islam was established just after the year 1000. Muslim rulers were in
Kanemstarting from sometime between 1081 to 1097, with reports of a Muslim prince at the head of
Gao as early as 1009. The
Islamic kingdoms associated with Mali reached prominence in the 13th century.
[25]
The Abbasids developed initiatives aimed at greater Islamic unity. Islamic faith and mosques separated by doctrine, history, and practice were pushed to cooperate. The Abbasids also distinguished themselves from the Umayyads by attacking both their moral character and administration. According to
Ira Lapidus, "The Abbasid revolt was supported largely by Arabs, mainly the aggrieved settlers of Marw with the addition of the Yemeni faction and their
Mawali".
[32] The Abbasids also appealed to non-Arab Muslims, known as
mawali, who remained outside the
kinship-based society of the Arabs and were perceived as a lower class within the Umayyad empire. Islamic
ecumenism, promoted by the Abbasids, refers to the idea of unity of the
Ummah in the literal meaning: that there was a single faith. Islamic philosophy developed as the
Shariah was codified, and the four
Madhabs were established. This era also saw the rise of classical
Sufism. The achievement, however, was completion of the canonical collections of
Hadith of
Sahih Bukhari and others.
[33] Islam recognized to a certain extent the validity of the
Abrahamic religions, the Qur'an identifying
Jews,
Christians,
Zoroastrians, and "
Sabi'un" or "baptists" (usually taken as a reference to the
Mandeans and related Mesopotamian groups) as "
people of the book". Toward the beginning of the high Middle Ages, the doctrines of the
Sunni and
Shia, two major
denominations of Islam, solidified and the
divisions of the world beyond their control would form. These trends would continue into the Fatimid and Ayyubid periods.
[edit]Golden Baghdad Abbasids
Early Middle Ages
-
-
- Consult particular article for details
According to Arab sources in the year 750,
Al-Saffah, the founder of the Abbasid Caliphate, launched a massive rebellion against the Umayyad Caliphate from the province of Khurasan near Talas. After eliminating the entire Umayyad family and victory at the
Battle of the Zab, Al-Saffah and his forces marched into Damascus and founded a new dynasty. His forces confronted many regional powers and consolidated the realm of the Abbasid Caliphate.
[citation needed]
In
Al-Mansur's time, Persian scholarship emerged. Many non-Arabs converted to Islam. The Umayyads actively discouraged conversion in order to continue the collection of the jizya, or the tax on non-Muslims. Islam nearly doubled within its territory from 8% of residents in 750 to 15% by the end of Al-Mansur's reign.
Al-Mahdi, whose name means "Rightly-guided" or "Redeemer", was proclaimed caliph when his father was on his deathbed. Baghdad blossomed during Al-Mahdi's reign, becoming the world's largest city. It attracted immigrants from Arabia, Iraq, Syria, Persia and as far away as India and Spain. Baghdad was home to Christians, Jews, Hindus, and Zoroastrians, in addition to the growing Muslim population. Like his father
Al-Hadi was very open to his people and allowed citizens to address him in the palace at Baghdad. He was considered an "enlightened ruler", and continued the progressive policies of his Abbasid predecessors. His short rule was plagued by military conflicts.
[citation needed]
An Arabic manuscript written under the second half of the Abbasid Era.
The military conflicts subsided as
Harun al-Rashid ruled. His reign was marked by scientific, cultural and religious prosperity. He established the library
Bayt al-Hikma ("House of Wisdom") and the arts and music flourished during his reign. The Barmakids family played a decisive role in establishing the Caliphate, but declined during his rule.
[citation needed]
According to signed pledges during a pilgrimage to Mecca,
Al-Amin received the Caliphate from his father Harun Al-Rashid. Al-Amin faced internal rebellions. General l
Tahir ibn Husaynrebelled and
besieged Baghdad. Tahir led reinforcements to regain positions lost by another officer. When Tahir pushed into the city, Al-Amin sought to negotiate safe passage. Tahir agreed on the condition Al-Amin turn over his
sceptre,
seal and other signs that he was caliph. Al-Amin tried to leave on a boat and rejected warnings that he wait. Tahir's forces attacked the boat and Al-Amin was thrown into the water. He swam to shore where he was captured and executed. His head was placed on the Al Anbar Gate.
[citation needed]
[edit]Regional powers
The Abbasids soon became caught in a three-way rivalry among
Coptic Arabs,
Indo-Persians, and immigrant Turks.
[37] In addition, the cost of running a large empire became too great.
[38] The Turks, Egyptians, and Arabs adhered to the Sunnite sect; the Persians, a great portion of the Turkic groups, and several of the princes in India were Shia. The political unity of Islam began to disintegrate. Under the influence of the Abbasid caliphs, independent dynasties appeared in the Muslim world and the caliphs recognized such dynasties as legitimately Muslim. The first was the
Tahirid dynasty in
Khorasan, which was founded during the caliph
Al-Ma'mun's reign. Similar dynasties included the
Saffarids,
Samanids,
Ghaznavids and
Seljuqs. During this time, advancements were made in the areas of astronomy, poetry, philosophy, science, and mathematics.
[citation needed]
[edit]High Baghdad Abbasids
Early Middle Ages
-
-
- Consult particular article for details
Upon Al-Amin's death,
Al-Ma'mun became Caliph. Al-Ma'mun grew the Abbasid empire somewhat during his reign and dealt with rebellions.
[39] Al-Ma'mun had been named governor of Khurasan by Harun, and after his ascension to power, the caliph named Tahir as governor of his military services in order to assure his loyalty. Tahir and his family became entrenched in Iranian politics and became powerful, frustrating Al-Ma'mun's desire to centralize and strengthen Caliphal power. The rising power of the
Tahirid dynasty became a threat as Al-Ma'mun's own policies alienated them and other opponents.
[citation needed]
Al-Ma'mun worked to centralize power and ensure a smooth succession. Al-Mahdi proclaimed that the caliph was the protector of Islam against heresy, and also claimed the ability to declare orthodoxy. Religious scholars averred that Al-Ma'mun was overstepping his bounds in the
Mihna (the
Abbasid inquisition) which he introduced in 833, four months before he died.
[40] The
Ulama emerged as a force in Islamic politics during Al-Ma'mun's reign for opposing the inquisitions. The
Ulema and the major Islamic law schools took shape in the period of Al-Ma'mun. In parallel, Sunnism became defined as a religion of laws. Doctrinal differences between Sunni and Shi'a Islam became more pronounced.
[citation needed]
During the Al-Ma'mun regime,
border wars increased. Al-Ma'mun made preparations for a major campaign, but died while leading an expedition in
Sardis. Al-Ma'mun gathered scholars of many religions at Baghdad, whom he treated well and with tolerance. He sent an emissary to the Byzantine Empire to collect the most famous manuscripts there, and had them translated into Arabic.
[41] His scientists originated
alchemy. Shortly before his death, during a visit to Egypt in 832, the caliph ordered the breaching of the
Great Pyramid of
Gizato search for knowledge and treasure. Workers tunneled in near where tradition located the original entrance. Al-Ma'mun later died near Tarsus under questionable circumstances and was succeeded by his half-brother,
Al-Mu'tasim, rather than his son, Al-Abbas ibn Al-Ma'mun.
[citation needed]
As Caliph, Al-Mu'tasim promptly ordered the dismantling of al-Ma'mun's military base at Tyana. He faced Khurramite revolts. One of the most difficult problems facing this Caliph was the ongoing uprising of Babak Khorramdin. Al-Mu'tasim overcame the rebels and secured a significant victory.
Byzantine emperor Theophilus launched an attack against Abbasid fortresses. Al-Mu'tasim sent Al-Afshin, who met and defeated Theophilus' forces at the
Battle of Anzen. On his return he became aware of a serious military conspiracy which forced him and his successors to rely upon Turkish commanders and
ghilman slave-soldiers (foreshadowing the
Mamluk system). The Khurramiyyah were never fully suppressed, although they slowly declined during the reigns of succeeding Caliphs. Near the end of al-Mu'tasim's life there was an uprising in Palestine, but he defeated the rebels.
[citation needed]
During Al-Mu'tasim's reign, the Tahirid dynasty continued to grow in power. The Tahirids were exempted from many tributes and oversight functions. Their independence contributed to Abbasid decline in the east. Ideologically, al-Mu'tasim followed his half-brother al-Ma'mun. He continued his predecessor's support for the Islamic Mu'tazila sect, applying brutal torture. Arab mathematician
Al-Kindi was employed by Al-Mu'tasim and tutored the Caliph's son. Al-Kindi had served at the House of Wisdom and continued his studies in Greek geometry and algebra under the caliph's patronage.
[citation needed]
Al-Wathiq succeeded his father. Al-Wathiq dealt with opposition in Arabia, Syria, Palestine and in Baghdad. Using a famous sword he personally joined the execution of the Baghdad rebels. The revolts were the result of an increasingly large gap between Arab populations and the Turkish armies. The revolts were put down, but antagonism between the two groups grew, as Turkish forces gained power. He also secured a captive exchange with the Byzantines. Al-Wathiq was a patron of scholars, as well as artists. He personally had musical talent and is reputed to have composed over one hundred songs.
[citation needed]
When Al-Wathiq died of high fever,
Al-Mutawakkil succeeded him. Al-Mutawakkil's reign is remembered for many reforms and is viewed as a golden age. He was the last great Abbasid caliph; after his death the dynasty fell into decline. Al-Mutawakkil ended the Mihna. Al-Mutawakkil built the
Great Mosque of Samarra[42] as part of an extension of Samarra eastwards that built upon part of the walled royal hunting park. During his reign, Al-Mutawakkil met famous Byzantine theologian
Constantine the Philosopher, who was sent to strengthen diplomatic relations between the Empire and the Caliphate by
Emperor Michael III. Al-Mutawakkil involved himself in religious debates, as reflected in his actions against minorities. The Shīʻi faced repression embodied in the destruction of the
shrine of Hussayn ibn ʻAlī, an action that was ostensibly carried out to stop pilgrimages. Al-Mutawakkil continued to rely on Turkish statesmen and slave soldiers to put down rebellions and lead battles against foreign empires, notably capturing Sicily from the Byzantines. Al-Mutawakkil was assassinated by a Turkish soldier.
[citation needed]
Al-Muntasir succeeded to the Caliphate on the same day with the support of the Turkish faction, though he was implicated in the murder. The Turkish party had al-Muntasir remove his brothers from the line of succession, fearing revenge for the murder of their father. Both brothers wrote statements of abdication. During his reign, Al-Muntasir removed the ban on pilgrimage to the tombs of Hassan and Hussayn and sent Wasif to raid the Byzantines. Al-Muntasir died of unknown causes. The Turkish chiefs held a council to select his successor, electing
Al-Musta'in. The Arabs and western troops from Baghdad were displeased at the choice and attacked. However, the Caliphate no longer depended on Arabian choice, but depended on Turkish support. After the failed Muslim campaign against the Christians, people blamed the Turks for bringing disaster on the faith and murdering their Caliphs. After the Turks besieged Baghdad, Al-Musta'in planned to abdicate to
Al-Mu'tazz but was put to death by his order. Al-Mu'tazz was enthroned by the Turks, becoming the youngest Abbasaid Caliph to assume power.
[citation needed]
High Abbasids
Jurisprudence
|
|---|
Four constructions of Islamite law
|
Early Abbasids
Literature and Science
|
|---|
- Hunayn ibn Ishaq, physician, Greek translator;
- Ibn Fadlan, explorer;
- Al Battani, astronomer;
- Tabari, historian and theologian;
- Al-Razi, philosopher, medic, chemist;
- Al-Farabi, chemist and philosopher;
- Abu Nasr Mansur, mathematician;
- Alhazen, mathematician;
- Al-Biruni, mathematician, astronomer, physicist;
- Omar Khayyám, poet, mathematician, and astronomer;
- Mansur Al-Hallaj, Sufism mystic, writer and teacher
|
Al-Mu'tazz proved too apt a pupil of his Turkish masters, but was surrounded by parties jealous of each other. At
Samarra, the Turks were having problems with the "Westerns" (Berbers and
Moors), while the Arabs and Persians at Baghdad, who had supported al-Musta'in, regarded both with equal hatred. Al-Mu'tazz put his brothers Al-Mu'eiyyad and Abu Ahmed to death. The ruler spent recklessly, causing a revolt of Turks, Africans, and Persians for their pay. Al-Mu'tazz was brutally deposed shortly thereafter.
Al-Muhtadibecame the next Caliph. He was firm and virtuous compared to the earlier Caliphs, though the Turks held the power. The Turks killed him soon after his ascension.
Al-Mu'tamidfollowed, holding on for 23 years, though he was largely a ruler in name only. After the
Zanj Rebellion, Al-Mu'tamid summoned
al-Muwaffak to help him. Thereafter, Al-Muwaffaq ruled in all but name. The
Hamdanid dynasty was founded by
Hamdan ibn Hamdun when he was appointed governor of
Mardin in Anatolia by the Caliphs in 890. Al-Mu'tamid later transferred authority to his son,
al-Mu'tadid, and never regained power. The
Tulunids became the first independent state in Islamic Egypt, when they broke away during this time.
[citation needed]
Al-Mu'tadid ably administered the Caliphate. Egypt returned to allegiance and Mesopotamia was restored to order. He was tolerant towards Shi'i, but toward the Umayyad community he was not so just. Al-Mu'tadid was cruel in his punishments, some of which are not surpassed by those of his predecessors. For example, the Kharijite leader at Mosul was paraded about Baghdad clothed in a robe of silk, of which Kharijites denounced as sinful, and then crucified. Upon Al-Mu'tadid's death, his son by a Turkish slave-girl,
Al-Muktafi, succeeded to the throne.
[citation needed]
Al-Muktafi became a favorite of the people for his generosity, and for abolishing his father's secret prisons, the terror of Baghdad. During his reign, the Caliphate overcame threats such as the
Carmathians. Upon Al-Muktafi's death, the vazir next chose
Al-Muqtadir. Al-Muqtadir's reign was a constant succession of thirteen Vazirs, one rising on the fall or assassination of another. His long reign brought the Empire to its lowest ebb. Africa was lost, and Egypt nearly. Mosul threw off its dependence, and the Greeks raided acoss the undefended border. The East continued to formally recognise the Caliphate, including those who virtually claimed independence.
[citation needed]
At the end of the Early Baghdad Abbasids period, Empress
Zoe Karbonopsina pressed for an armistice with Al-Muqtadir and arranged for the ransom of the Muslim prisoner
[43] while the Byzantine frontier was threatened by Bulgarians. This only added to Baghdad's disorder. Though despised by the people, Al-Muqtadir was again placed in power after upheavals. Al-Muqtadir was eventually slain outside the city gates, whereupon courtiers chose his brother
al-Qahir. He was even worse. Refusing to abdicate, he was blinded and cast into prison.
[citation needed]
His son
Ar-Radi took over only to experience a cascade of misfortune. Praised for his piety, he became the tool of the de facto ruling Minister,
Ibn Raik (Amir al-Umara; 'Amir of the Amirs'). Ibn Raik held the reins of government and his name was joined with the Caliph's in public prayers. Around this period, the
Hanbalis, supported by popular sentiment, set up in fact a kind of 'Sunni inquisition'. Ar-Radi is commonly regarded as the last of the real Caliphs: the last to deliver orations at the Friday service, to hold assemblies, to commune with philosophers, to discuss the questions of the day, to take counsel on the affairs of State; to distribute
alms, or to temper the severity of cruel officers. Thus ended the Early Baghdad Abbasids.
[citation needed]
In the late mid-930s, the
Ikhshidids of Egypt carried the Arabic title "Wali" reflecting their position as governors on behalf of the Abbasids, The first governor (
Muhammad bin Tughj Al-Ikhshid) was installed by the Abbasid Caliph. They gave him and his descendants the Wilayah for 30 years. The last name Ikhshid is Soghdian for "prince".
[citation needed]
Also in the 930s,
‘Alī ibn Būyah and his two younger brothers,
al-Hassan and
Aḥmad founded the
Būyid confederation. Originally a soldier in the service of the
Ziyārīds of
Ṭabaristān, ‘Alī was able to recruit an army to defeat a Turkish general from
Baghdad named
Yāqūt in 934. Over the next nine years the three brothers gained control of the remainder of the caliphate, while accepting the titular authority of the caliph in Baghdad. The Būyids made large territorial gains.
Fars and
Jibal were conquered. Central Iraq submitted in 945, before the Būyids took
Kermān (967),
Oman (967), the
Jazīra (979), Ṭabaristān (980), and
Gorgan (981). After this the Būyids went into slow decline, with pieces of the confederation gradually breaking off and local dynasties under their rule becoming
de factoindependent.
[44]
[edit]Middle Baghdad Abbasids
Early High Middle Ages
-
-
- Consult particular article for details
Mediterrean Region
and the States of the Crusades |
|---|
Regional States, ca. 1180.
|
At the beginning of the Middle Baghdad Abbasids, the Caliphate had become of little importance. Bajkam, Amir al-Umara, contented himself with dispatching his secretary to Baghdad to assemble local dignitaries to elect a successor. The choice fell on
Al-Muttaqi. Bajkam was killed on a hunting party by marauding Kurds. In the ensuing anarchy in Baghdad, Ibn Raik persuaded the Caliph to flee to Mosul where he was welcomed by the Hamdanid. They assassinated Ibn Raik. Hamdanid Nasir ad-Daula advanced on Baghdad, where mercenaries and well-organised Turks repelled them. Turkish general
Tuzunbecame
Amir al-Umara. The Turks were staunch Sunnis. A fresh conspiracy placed the Caliph in danger. Hamdanid troops helped ad-Daula escape to Mosul and then to Nasibin. Tuzun and the Hamdanid were stalemated. Al-Muttaqi was at
Ar Raqqah, moving to Tuzun where he was deposed. Tuzun installed the blinded Caliph's cousin as successor, with the title of
Al-Mustakfi. With the new Caliph, Tuzun attacked the
Buwayhid dynasty and the
Hamdanids. Soon after, Tuzun died, and was succeeded by one of his generals, Abu Ja'far. The Buwayhids then attacked Baghdad, and Abu Ja'far fled into hiding with the Caliph. Buwayhid Sultan Muiz ud-Daula assumed command forcing the Caliph into abject submission to the Amir. Eventually, Al-Mustakfi was blinded and deposed. The city fell into chaos, and the Caliph's palace was looted.
[citation needed]
| Significant Middle Abbasid Muslims |
|---|
|
|
Once the Buwayhids controlled Baghdad,
Al-Muti became caliph. The office was shorn of real power and Shi'a observances were established. The Buwayhids held on Baghdad for over a century. Tthrough the Buwayhid reign the Caliphate was at its lowest ebb, but was recognized religiously, except in
Iberia. Buwayhid Sultan Muiz ud-Daula was prevented from raising a Shi'a Caliph to the throne by fear for his own safety, and fear of rebellion, in the capital and beyond.
[citation needed]
The next Caliph,
Al-Ta'i, reigned over factional strife in Syria among the Fatimids, Turks, and Carmathians. The Buwayhid dynasyty also fractured. The Abbasid borders were the defended only by small border states. Byzantine Emperor
John Tzimisces's attacked and deposed Al-Ta'i.
[citation needed]
By 1000 the global Muslim population had climbed to about 4 per cent of the world total compared to the Christian population of 10 per cent.
Al-Qadir was recalled and appointed to the office. During his Caliphate,
Mahmud of Ghazni looked after the empire. The great Mahmud of Ghazni, of Eastern fame, was friendly towards the Caliphs, and his victories in the Indian Empire were accordingly announced from the pulpits of Baghdad in grateful and glowing terms. Al-Qadir fostered the Sunni struggle against Shiʿism and outlawed heresies such as the
Baghdad Manifesto and the createdness of the Qurʾan. He outlawed the
Muʿtazila. During this and the next period,
Islamic literature, especially
Persian literature, flourished under the patronage of the Buwayhids.
[citation needed]
During
Al-Qa'im's reign, the Buwayhid ruler often fled the capital and the Seljuq dynasty gained power.
Toghrül overran Syria and Armenia. He then made his way into the Capital, where he was well-received both by chiefs and people. In
Bahrain, the Qarmatian state collapsed in
Al-Hasa. Arabia recovered from the Fatimids and again acknowledged the spiritual jurisdiction of the Abbasids.
Al-Muqtadiwas honored by the Seljuq Sultan
Malik-Shah I, during whose reign the Caliphate was recognized throughout the extending range of Seljuq conquest. The Sultan was critical of the Caliph's interference in affairs of state, but died before deposing the last of the Middle Baghdad Abbasids.
[citation needed]
[edit]Late Baghdad Abbasids
Late High Middle Ages
-
-
- Consult particular article for details
| Al-Aqsa Mosque |
|---|
Plan of Al-Aqsa Mosque, year 985
-
|
The Late Baghdad Abbasids reigned from the beginning of the
Crusades to the
Seventh Crusade. The first Caliph was
Al-Mustazhir. He was politically irrelevant, despite civil strife at home and the
First Crusade in Syria.
Raymond IV of Toulouse attempted to attack Baghdad, losing at the
Battle of Manzikert. The global Muslim population climbed to about 5 per cent as against the Christian population of 11 per cent by 1100.
Jerusalem was captured by crusaders who massacred its inhabitants. Preachers travelled throughout the caliphate proclaiming the tragedy and rousing men to recover the
Al-Aqsa Mosque from the
Frankss (European Crusaders). Crowds of exiles rallied for war against the
infidel. Neither the Sultan nor the Caliph sent an army west.
[citation needed]
Al-Mustarshid achieved more independence while the sultan
Mahmud II of Great Seljuq was engaged in war in the East. The
Banu Mazyad (Mazyadid State) general, Dubays ibn Sadaqa
[45] (emir of
Al-Hilla), plundered
Bosra and attacked Baghdad together with a young brother of the sultan,
Ghiyath ad-Din Mas'ud. Dubays was crushed by a Seljuq army under
Zengi, founder of
Zengid dynasty. Mahmud's death was followed by a civil war between his son Dawud, his nephew Mas'ud and the atabeg Toghrul II. Zengi was recalled to the East, stimulated by the Caliph and Dubays, where he was beaten. The Caliph then laid siege to Mosul for three months without success, resisted by Mas'ud and Zengi. It was nonetheless a milestone in the caliphate's military revival.
[citation needed]
After the siege of Damascus (1134),
[46] Zengi undertook
operations in Syria. Al-Mustarshid attacked sultan Mas'ud of western Seljuq and was taken prisoner. He was later found murdered.
[47] His son,
Al-Rashid failed to gain independence from Seljuq Turks. Zengi, because of the murder of Dubays, set up a rival Sultanate. Mas'ud attacked; the Caliph and Zengi, hopeless of success, escaped to Mosul. The Sultan regained power, a council was held, the Caliph was deposed, and his uncle, son of
Al-Muqtafi, appointed as the new Caliph. Ar-Rashid fled to
Isfahan and was killed by Hashshashins.
[citation needed]
Continued disunion and contests between Seljuq Turks allowe4d al-Muqtafi to maintain control in Baghdad and to extend it throughout Iraq. In 1139, al-Muqtafi granted protection to the
Nestorian patriarch
Abdisho III. While the Crusade raged, the Caliph successfully defended Baghdad against Muhammad II of Seljuq in the
Siege of Baghdad (1157). The Sultan and the Caliph dispatched men in response to Zengi's appeal, but neither the Seljuqs, nor the Caliph, nor their Amirs, dared resist the Crusaders.
The next caliph,
Al-Mustanjid, saw
Saladin extinguish the
Fatimid dynasty after 260 years, and thus the Abbasids again prevailed.
Al-Mustadi reigned when Saladin become the sultan of Egypt and declared allegiance to the Abbasids.
An-Nasir, "
The Victor for the Religion of God", attempted to restore the Caliphate to its ancient dominant role. He consistently held Iraq from Tikrit to the Gulf without interruption. His forty-seven year reign was chiefly marked by ambitious and corrupt dealings with the Tartar chiefs, and by his hazardous invocation of the Mongols, which ended his dynasty. His son,
Az-Zahir, was Caliph for a short period before his death and An-Nasir's grandson,
Al-Mustansir, was made caliph.
Al-Musta'sim was the last Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad and is noted for his opposition to the rise of Shajar al-Durr to the Egyptian throne during the Seventh Crusade. To the east, Mongol forces under
Hulagu Khan swept through the
Transoxiana and
Khorasan.
Baghdad was sacked and the caliph deposed soon afterwards. The Mamluk sultans and Syria later appointed a powerless Abbasid Caliph in Cairo.
[citation needed]
[edit]Cairo Abbasid Caliphs
Abbasid "shadow" caliph of Cairo
Late Middle Ages
-
-
- Consult particular article for details
The Abbasid "shadow" caliph of Cairo reigned under the tutelage of the
Mamluk sultans and nominal rulers used to legitimize the actual rule of the Mamluk sultans. All the Cairene Abbasid caliphs who preceded or succeeded
Al-Musta'in were spiritual heads lacking any temporal power. Al-Musta'in was the only Cairo-based Abbasid caliph to even briefly hold political power.
Al-Mutawakkil III was the last "shadow" caliph. In 1517, Ottoman sultan Selim I defeated the Mamluk Sultanate, and made Egypt part of the Ottoman Empire.
[citation needed]
[edit]Fatimid Empire
Abdullāh al-Mahdi's control soon extended over all of central
Maghreb, an area consisting of the modern countries of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya, which he ruled from
Mahdia, his capital in Tunisia.
[citation needed]
The Fatimids entered Egypt in the late 10th century, conquering the
Ikhshidid dynasty and founding a capital at
al-Qāhira(
Cairo) in 969.
[51] The name was a reference to the planet Mars, "The Subduer", which was prominent in the sky at the moment that city construction started. Cairo was intended as a royal enclosure for the Fatimid caliph and his army, though the actual administrative and economic capital of Egypt was in cities such as
Fustat until 1169. After Egypt, the Fatimids continued to conquer surrounding areas until they ruled from Tunisia to Syria and even crossed the Mediterranean into Sicily and southern Italy.
Under the Fatimids, Egypt became the center of an empire that included at its peak North Africa, Sicily, [Palestine, Lebanon, Syria, the
Red Sea coast of Africa, Yemen and the
Hejaz.
[52] Egypt flourished, and the Fatimids developed an extensive trade network in both the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean. Their trade and diplomatic ties extended all the way to China and its
Song Dynasty, which determined the economic course of Egypt during the
High Middle Ages.
Unlike other governments in the area, Fatimid advancement in state offices was based more on merit than heredity. Members of other branches of Islam, including Sunnis, were just as likely to be appointed to government posts as Shiites. Tolerance covered non-Muslims such as Christians and Jews; they took high levels in government based on ability.
[53] There were, however, exceptions to this general attitude of tolerance, notably
Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah.
The Fatimid palace was in two parts. It was in the
Khan el-Khalili area at Bin El-Quasryn street.
[54]
[edit]Fatimid caliphs
Early and High Middle Ages
-
-
- Consult particular article for details
- Also see: Cairo Abbasid Caliphs (above)
During the beginning of the Middle Baghdad Abbasids, the Fatimid Caliphs claimed spiritual supremacy not only in Egypt, but also contested the religious leadership of Syria. At the beginning of the Abbasid realm in Baghdad, the Alids faced severe persecution by the ruling party as they were a direct threat to the Caliphate. Owing to the Abbasid inquisitions, the forefathers opted for concealment of the Dawa's existence. Subsequently, they traveled towards the Iranian Plateau and distanced themselves from the epicenter of the political world. Al Mahdi's father, Al Husain al Mastoor returned to control the Dawa's affairs. He sent two Dai's to Yemen and Western Africa. Al Husain died soon after the birth of his son, Al Mahdi. A system of information gatherers helped update Al Mahdi on each development which took place in North Africa.
[citation needed]
Al Mahdi established the first
Imam of the Fatimid dynasty. He claimed genealogic origins dating as far back as Fatimah through Husayn and Ismail. Al Mahdi established his headquarters at Salamiyah and moved towards north-western Africa, under
Aghlabid rule. His success of laying claim to being the precursor to the Mahdi was instrumental among the Berber tribes of North Africa, specifically the Kutamah tribe. Al Mahdi established himself at the former Aghlabid residence at Raqqadah, a suburb of
Al-Qayrawan in Tunisia. At the time of his death he had extended his reign to Morocco of the
Idrisids, as well as Egypt itself. In 920, Al Mahdi took up residence at the newly established capital of the empire,
Al-Mahdiyyah. After his death, Al Mahdi was succeeded by his son, Abu Al-Qasim Muhammad Al-Qaim, who continued his expansionist policy.
[citation needed]
[edit]Berbers and Iberian Umayyads
The Arabs, under the command of the Berber General
Tarik ibn Ziyad, first began their conquest of southern Spain or al-Andalus in 711. A raiding party led by Tarik was sent to intervene in a civil war in the
Visigothic kingdom in
Hispania. Crossing the
Strait of Gibraltar(named after the General), it won a decisive victory in the summer of 711 when the Visigothic king
Roderic was defeated and killed on July 19 at the
Battle of Guadalete. Tariq's commander,
Musa bin Nusair crossed with substantial reinforcements, and by 718 the Muslims dominated most of the peninsula. Some later Arabic and Christian sources present an earlier raid by a certain
Ṭārif in 710 and also, the
Ad Sebastianum recension of the
Chronicle of Alfonso III, refers to an Arab attack incited by
Erwig during the reign of
Wamba(672–80). The two large armies may have been in the south for a year before the decisive battle was fought.
[55]
The rulers of Al-Andalus were granted the rank of
Emir by the
Umayyad Caliph Al-Walid I in
Damascus. After the
Abbasids came to power, some Umayyads fled to Muslim Spain to establish themselves there. By the end of the 10th century, the ruler
Abd al-Rahman III took over the title of
Emir of Córdoba(912-961).
[56] Soon after, the Umayyads went on developing a strengthened state with its capital as
Córdoba.
Al-Hakam II succeeded to the Caliphate after the death of his father Abd ar-Rahman III in 961. He secured peace with the Christian kingdoms of northern Iberia,
[57] and made use of the stability to develop agriculture through the construction of irrigation works.
[58] Economical development was also encouraged through the widening of streets and the building of markets. The rule of the Caliphate is known as the heyday of Muslim presence in the peninsula.
[59]
The Umayyad Caliphate collapsed in 1031 due to political divisions and civil unrest during the rule of
Hicham II who was ousted because of his indolence.
[60] Al-Andalus then broke up into a number of states called
taifa kingdoms (Arabic,
Muluk al-ṭawā'if; English, Petty kingdoms). The decomposition of the Caliphate into those
petty kingdoms weakened the Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula
vis-à-vis the Christian kingdoms of the north. Some of the
taifas, such as that of Seville, were forced to enter into alliances with Christian princes and pay tributes in money to Castille.
[61]
[edit]Emirs of Córdoba
-
-
- Consult particular article for details
Abd al-Rahman I and Bedr (a former Greek slave) escaped with their lives after the popular revolt known as the
Abbasid Revolution. Rahman I continued south through Palestine, the Sinai, and then into Egypt. Rahman I was one of several surviving Umayyad family members to make a perilous trek to Ifriqiya at this time. Rahman I and Bedr reached modern day Morocco near
Ceuta. Next step would be to cross to sea to al-Andalus, where Rahman I could not have been sure whether he would be welcome. Following the
Berber Revolt(740s), the province was in a state of confusion, with the
Ummah torn by tribal dissensions among the Arabs and racial tensions between the Arabs and Berbers. Bedr lined up three Syrian commanders –
Obeid Allah ibn Uthman and
Abd Allah ibn Khalid, both originally of Damascus, and Yusuf ibn Bukht of Qinnasrin and contacted al-Sumayl (then in
Zaragoza) to get his consent, but al-Sumayl refused, fearing Rahman I would try to make himself emir. After discussion with Yemenite commanders, Rahman I was told to go to al-Andalus. Shortly thereafter, he set off with Bedr and a small group of followers for Europe. Abd al-Rahman landed at
Almuñécar in al-Andalus, to the east of
Málaga.
During his brief time in Málaga, he quickly amassed local support. News of the prince's arrival spread throughout the peninsula. In order to help speed his ascension to power, he took advantage of the feuds and dissensions. However, before anything could be done, trouble broke out in northern al-Andalus. Abd al-Rahman and his followers were able to
control Zaragoza. Rahman I fought to rule al-Andalus in a battle at the
Guadalquivir river, just outside of Córdoba on the plains of Musarah (Battle of Musarah). Rahman I was victorious, chasing his enemies from the field with parts of their army. Rahman I marched into the capital, Córdoba, fighting off a
counterattack, but negotiations ended the confrontation. After Rahman I consolidated power, he proclaimed himself the al-Andalus emir. Rahman I did not claim the Muslim caliph, though.
[62] The last step was to have al-Fihri's general, al-Sumayl, garroted in Córdoba's jail. Al-Andalus was a
safe haven for the house of Umayya that managed to evade the Abbasids.
[citation needed]
In Baghdad, the Abbasid caliph
al-Mansur had planned to depose the emir. Rahman I and his army confronted the Abbasids, killing most of the Abbasid army. The main Abbasid leaders were decapitated, their heads preserved in salt, with identifying tags pinned to their ears. The heads were bundled in a gruesome package and sent to the Abbasid caliph who was on pilgrimage at Mecca. Rahman I quelled repeated rebellions in al-Andalus. Near the end of his life, it is said that Abd al-Rahman became increasingly paranoid and sequestered himself in his palaces.
[citation needed]
The exterior of the Mezquita.
Muhammad I's reign was marked by the movements of the
Muladi (ethnic Iberian Muslims) and
Mozarabs (Muslim-Iberia Christians). Muhammad I was succeeded by his son
Mundhir I. During the reign of his father, Mundhir I commanded military operations against the neighbouring Christian kingdoms and the Muladi rebellions. At his father's death, he inherited the throne. During his two year reign, Mundhir I fought against
Umar ibn Hafsun. He died in 888 at Bobastro, succeeded by his brother
Abdullah ibn Muhammad al-Umawi.
Umawi showed no reluctance to dispose of those he viewed as a threat. His government was marked by continuous wars between Arabs, Berbers and Muladi. His power as emir was confined to the area of Córdoba, while the rest had been seized by rebel families. The son he had designated as successor was killed by one of Umawi's brothers. The latter was in turn executed by Umawi's father, who named as successor
Abd ar-Rahman III, son of the killed son of Umawi.
[citation needed]
[edit]Caliphs at Córdoba
-
-
- Consult particular article for details
Rahman III to help in his fight against the invasion by the Fatimids claimed the Caliphate in opposition to the generally recognized Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad.
[citation needed]
[edit]Almoravid Ifriqiyah and Iberia
-
-
- Consult particular article for details
- Ifriqiyah, Iberian
[edit]Almohad caliphs
-
-
- Consult particular article for details
[edit]The Crusades
Main article:
The Crusades
In the early period of the Crusades, the Christian
Kingdom of Jerusalem emerged and for a time controlled Jerusalem. The Kingdom of Jerusalem and other smaller
Crusader kingdomsover the next 90 years formed part of the complicated politics of the
Levant, but did not in threaten the Islamic Caliphate nor other powers in the region. After
Shirkuh ended Fatimid rule in 1169, uniting it with Syria, the Crusader kingdoms were faced with a threat, and his nephew Saladin reconquered most of the area in 1187, leaving the Crusaders holding a few ports.
[citation needed]
In the
Third Crusade armies from Europe failed to recapture Jerusalem, though Crusader states lingered for several decades, and other crusades followed. The Christian Reconquista continued in Al-Andalus, and was eventually completed with the
fall of Granada in
1492. During the low period of the Crusades, the
Fourth Crusade was diverted from the Levant and instead took
Constantinople, leaving the Eastern Roman Empire (now the Byzantine Empire) further weakened in their long struggle against the
Turkish peoples to the east. However, the crusaders did manage to damage Islamic caliphates; preventing them from further expansion into
Christendom and targets of the Mamluks and the Mongols.
[citation needed]
[edit]Ayyubid dynasty
The
Ayyubid dynasty was founded by
Saladin and centered in Egypt. In 1174, Saladin proclaimed himself Sultan and conquered the Near East region. The Ayyubids ruled much of the Middle East during the 12th and 13th centuries, controlling Egypt, Syria, northern Mesopotamia, Hejaz, Yemen, and the North African coast up to the borders of modern-day Tunisia. After Saladin, his sons contested control over the sultanate, but Saladin's brother al-Adil eventually established himself in 1200. In the 1230s, Syria's Ayyubid rulers attempted to win independence from Egypt and remained divided until Egyptian Sultan as-Salih Ayyub restored Ayyubid unity by taking over most of Syria, excluding
Aleppo, by 1247. In 1250, the dynasty in the Egyptian region was overthrown by slave regiments. A number of attempts to recover it failed, led by an-Nasir Yusuf of Aleppo. In 1260, the Mongols sacked Aleppo and wrested control of what remained of the Ayyubid territories soon after.
[citation needed]
[edit]Sultans of Egypt
-
-
- Consult particular article for details
[edit]Sultans and Emirs of Damascus
-
-
- Consult particular article for details
[edit]Emirs of Aleppo
-
-
- Consult particular article for details
[edit]Mongol invasions
After the Crusades the
Mongols invaded in the 13th century, marking the end of the
Islamic Golden Age. Some historians assert that the eastern Islamic world never fully recovered. Under the leadership of
Genghis Khan, The Mongols ended to the Abbasid era. The
Mongol invasion of Central Asia began in 1219 at a huge cost in civilian life and economic devastation. The Mongols spread throughout Central Asia and Persia: the Persian city of
Isfahan had fallen to them by 1237.
[citation needed]
With the election of Khan
Mongke in 1251, Mongol targeted the Abbasid capital, Baghdad. Mongke's brother,
Hulegu, was made leader of the
Mongol Army assigned to the task of subduing Baghdad. The
fall of Bagdhad in 1258 destroyed what had been the largest city in Islam. The last Abbasid caliph,
al-Musta'sim, was captured and killed; and Baghdad was ransacked and destroyed. The cities of Damascus and Aleppo fell in 1260. Plans for the conquest of Egypt were delayed due to the death of Mongke at around the same time. The Abbasid army lost to the superior Mongol army, but the invaders were finally stopped by Egyptian Mamluks north of Jerusalem in 1260.
[citation needed]
Ultimately, the
Ilkhanate,
Golden Horde, and the
Chagatai Khanate - three of the four principal Mongol khanates - embraced Islam.
[63][64][65] In power in Syria, Mesopotamia, Persia and further east, over the rest of the 13th century gradually all converted to Islam. Most Ilkhanid rulers were replaced by the new Mongol power founded by
Timur (himself a Muslim), who conquered Persia in the 1360s, and moved against the
Delhi Sultanate in India and the
Ottoman Turks in
Anatolia. His invasions were equally destructive, sacking Bagdhad,
Damascus,
Delhi and many other cities, with enormous loss of life. Timur had attacked areas still recovering from the
Black Death, which may have killed one third of the population of the Middle East. The plague began in China, and reached
Alexandria in Egypt in 1347, spreading over the following years to most Islamic areas. The combination of the plague and the wars left the Middle Eastern Islamic world in a seriously weakened position. The
Timurid dynasty would found had many branches of Islam, including the
Mughals of India.
[citation needed]
[edit]The Mamluks
In 1250, the Ayyubid Egyptian dynasty was overthrown by slave regiments, and the
Mamluk Sultanate was born. In the 1260s, the Mongols sacked and control the Islamic Near East territories. The Mamluks, who were
Turkic, forced out the Mongols (see
Battle of Ain Jalut) after the final destruction of the Ayyubid dynasty. Thus they united Syria and Egypt for the longest interval between the Abbasid and Ottoman empires (1250–1517).
[66] The Mamluks experienced a continual state of political conflict, military tension, proxy wars, and economic competition between the "Muslim territory" (
Dar al-Islam) and "non-Muslim territory" (
Dar al-Harb).
[citation needed]
As part of their chosen role as defenders of Islamic orthodoxy, the Mamluks sponsored numerous religious buildings, including mosques,
madrasas and
khanqahs. Though some construction took place in the provinces, the vast bulk of these projects expanded the capital. Many Mamluk buildings in Cairo survive, particularly in Old Cairo.
[citation needed]
[edit]Bahri Sultans
Main article:
Bahri dynasty-
-
- Consult particular article for details
A former Mamluk slave who was born a prince,
Aybak (known as
Lion of Ain Jaloot) replaced the Mamluks in 1250. Aybak, by then a general, married
Shajar al-Durr, the widow of Ayyubid caliph
al-Salih Ayyub. Military prestige was at the center of Mamluk society, and it played a key role in the confrontations with the Mongol forces. After Aybak's assassination and the accession of
Qutuz in 1259, the Mamluks challenged and routed the Mongols at the
Battle of Ain Jalut in late 1260. The Mongols were again defeated by the Mamluks at the
Battle of Hims a few months later, and then driven out of Syria altogether.
[31] With this, the Mamluks were able to concentrate their forces and to conquer the last of the crusader territories in the Levant.
[edit]Burji Sultans
Main article:
Burji dynasty
Eastern Mediterranean 1450
-
-
- Consult particular article for details
- See also: Islamic Egypt governors, Mamluks Era
The global Muslim population had reached about 8 per cent of the world total as against the Christian population of 14 per cent by 1400.
[edit]Horn of Africa
The history of Islam in the
Horn of Africa is almost as old as the faith itself. Through extensive trade and social interactions with their converted Muslim trading partners on the other side of the
Red Sea, in the
Arabian peninsula, merchants and sailors in the Horn region gradually came under the influence of the new religion.
[67]
Early Islamic disciples fled to the port city of
Zeila in modern-day northern
Somalia to seek protection from the
Quraysh at the court of the
Aksumite Emperor in present-day Somalia. Some of the Muslims that were granted protection are said to have then settled in several parts of the Horn region to promote the religion. The victory of the Muslims over the Quraysh in the 7th century had a significant impact on local merchants and sailors, as their trading partners in Arabia had by then all adopted Islam, and the major trading routes in the
Mediterranean and the Red Sea came under the sway of the
Muslim Caliphs. Instability in the Arabian peninsula saw further migrations of early Muslim families to the Somali seaboard. These clans came to serve as catalysts, forwarding the faith to large parts of the Horn region.
[67]
[edit]Maghreb
The
Great Mosque of Kairouan also known as the Mosque of Uqba was founded in 670 by the Arab general and conqueror Uqba ibn Nafi, it is the oldest mosque in the Maghreb, situated in the city of
Kairouan,
Tunisia.
This part of Islamic territory has had independent governments during most of Islamic history. The
Idrisid were the first Arab rulers in the western
Maghreb (Morocco), ruling from 788 to 985. The dynasty is named after its first
sultan Idris I.
[citation needed]
The
Almoravid dynasty was a Berber dynasty from the
Sahara flourished over a wide area of North-Western Africa and the
Iberian Peninsula during the 11th century. Under this dynasty the
Moorish empire was extended over present-day Morocco, Western Sahara, Mauritania, Gibraltar,
Tlemcen (in Algeria) and a part of what is now
Senegal and
Mali in the south, and Spain and Portugal in the north.
[citation needed]
The
Almohad Dynasty or "the Unitarians", were a Berber Muslim religious power which founded the fifth
Moorish dynasty in the 12th century, and conquered all Northern Africa as far as Egypt, together with Al-Andalus.
[citation needed]
[edit]Great Lakes
Islam came to the
Great Lakes region of South Eastern Africa along existing trade routes.
[70] They learned from them the manners of the Muslims and this led to their conversion by the Muslim Arabs.
Local Islamic governments centered in
Tanzania (then
Zanzibar). The people of
Zayd were Muslims that immigrated to the Great Lakes region. In the pre-colonial period, the structure of Islamic authority here was held up through the
Ulema (
wanawyuonis, in
Swahili language). These leaders had some degree of authority over most of the Muslims in South East Africa before territorial boundaries were established. The chief
Qadi there was recognized for having the final religious authority.
[71]
[edit]West Africa
[edit]Asia and the Far East
Main article:
Islam in Asia
[edit]South Asia
[edit]Southeast Asia
Many of historian predict that Islam reached South East Asia, espescially western part of Indonesia Archipelago on the 13th Century. But, More than Two Thousands years ago Arab traders from Yaman had been connected to other far east Asia through trading and traveling by sea. The trader from Arab is the intermediary trader between Europe to African, Indian, South East Asian, and Far East Asian, including Japan and China. They were not just sold goods from Arab, but also goods from Africa, India, and so on, such as ivory, fragrance, spice, seasoning, gold, etc.
[72] Islam first reached the islands of Southeast Asia through traders from Mecca still during the first century of the
Islamic calendar (the 7th century).
[31]
There are many strong possibility that Islam had been spread by Arab traders to South East Asia in the 1st Century of Islamic Calendar or 7th Century of Christian/Gregorian Calendar. This Fact is much stronger, according to T.W. Arnold in The Preaching of Islam - In the 2nd Century of Islamic Calendar (Hijri), Arab trader had been trade to Ceylon or Srilangka (island in southern part of India). The same argument has been told by Prof.Dr. B.H. Burger and Prof.Dr.Mr. Prajudi in
Sedjarah Ekonomis Sosiologis Indonesia (History of Socio Economic of Indonesia)
[73]
There are more possibility that Islam was spread by Arab Traders to South East Asia. According to Al Biruni, the Muslim Scholar Geographical Experty, 973 - 1048 AD, in his World Atlas written that Indian or Indonesia Ocean used to be call as Persian Ocean. After the Western Imperialist ruled, it is replaced Persian Ocean to be Indian Ocean.
[74]
As Islam spread from 7th Century AD, the social changes had been developed, from the individual faith changes to society changes. Soon, after five centuries of mingled and interraced with assimilation and acculturation with the native south east Asia society, Islam was emerged as political power in the region.
So, as Islam spread, three main Muslim political powers emerged.
Aceh, the most important Muslim power, was based in Northern Sumatra. It controlled much of the area between Southeast Asia and India. The Sultanate also attracted
Sufi poets. The second Muslim power was the Sultanate of Malacca on the Malay peninsula. The Sultanate of
Demak was the third power, appearing in
Java, where the emerging Muslim forces defeated the local
Majapahit kingdom in the early 16th century.
[77] Although the sultanate managed to expand its territory somewhat, its rule remained brief.
[31]
Portuguese forces captured Malacca in 1511 under the naval general
Afonso de Albuquerque. With Malacca subdued, the
Aceh Sultanate and Brunei established themselves as centers of Islam in Southeast Asia. Brunei's sultanate remains intact even to this day.
[31]
[edit]Fragmentation period
[edit]Three Early Modern empires
In the 15th and 16th centuries three major Muslim empires formed: the
Ottoman Empire in the Middle East, the
Balkans and
Northern Africa; the
Safavid Empire in
Greater Iran; and the
Mughul Empire in South Asia. These imperial powers were made possible by the discovery and exploitation of
gunpowder and more efficient administration.
[78] By the end of the 19th century, all three had declined, and by the early 20th century, with the Ottomans' defeat in World War I, the last Muslim empire collapsed.
[edit]Mughal Empire
Main article:
Mughal Empire
The Mughal Empire was a product of various
Central Asian invasions into the
Indian subcontinent. It was founded by the
Timurid prince
Babur in 1526 with the destruction of the
Delhi sultanate, placing its capital in
Agra. Babur's death some years later and the indecisive rule of his son,
Humayun, brought instability to Mughal rule. The resistance of the
AfghaniSher Shah, who administered a string of defeats to Humayun, weakened the empire. A year before his death, however, Humayun managed to recover much of the lost territories, leaving a substantial legacy for his son, the 13 year old
Akbar (later known as
Akbar the Great), in 1556. Under Akbar, consolidation of the Mughal Empire occurred through both expansion and administrative reforms. After Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan came to power. Subsequently, Aurangazeb ruled vast areas including Afghanisthan, Pakistan, India and Bangladesh.
[31][79]
The empire ruled most of present-day India, Pakistan,
Bangladesh and
Afghanistan for several centuries. Its decline in the early 18th century allowed India to be divided into smaller kingdoms and states. The Mughal dynasty was dissolved by the
British Empire after the
Indian rebellion of 1857.
[31][79] It left a lasting legacy on Indian culture and architecture. Famous buildings built by the Mughals, include: the
Taj Mahal, the
Red Fort, the
Badshahi Mosque, the
Lahore Fort, the
Shalimar Gardens and the
Agra Fort. During the empire's reign, Muslim communities flourished all over India, in
Gujarat,
Bengal and
Hyderabad. Various Sufi orders from Afghanistan and Persia were active throughout the region. More than a quarter of the population converted to Islam.
[79]
[edit]Safavid Empire
Although claiming to be the descendants of
Ali ibn Abu Talib, the Safavids were
Sunni (the name "Safavid" comes from a Sufi order called
Safavi). Their origins go back to
Firuz Shah Zarrinkolah, a local dignitary from the north. During their rule, the Safavids recognized Twelver Shi'a Islam as the State religion, thus giving the region a separate identity from its Sunni neighbours.
In 1524,
Tahmasp I acceded to the throne, initiating a revival of the arts.
Carpetmakingbecame a major industry. The tradition of
Persian miniature painting in manuscripts reached its peak, until Tahmasp turned to strict religious observance in middle age, prohibiting the consumption of alcohol and
hashish and removing
casinos,
taverns and
brothels. Tahmasp's nephew
Ibrahim Mirza continued to patronize a last flowering of the arts until he was murdered, after which many artists were recruited by the Mughal dynasty.
Tahmasp's grandson,
Shah Abbas I, restored the shrine of the eighth Twelver Shi'a Imam,
Ali al-Ridha at
Mashhad, and restored the dynastic shrine at
Ardabil. Both shrines received jewelry, fine manuscripts and Chinese porcelains. Abbas moved the capital to
Isfahan, revived old ports, and established thriving trade with Europeans. Amongst Abbas's most visible cultural achievements was the construction of
Naqsh-e Jahan Square ("Design of the World"). The plaza, located near a Friday mosque, covered 20 acres (81,000 m
2).
[80]
[edit]Ottoman Empire
Main article:
Ottoman Empire
The Seljuq Turks declined in the second half of the 13th century, after the
Mongol invasion.
[81] This resulted in the establishment of multiple Turkish principalities, known as
beyliks.
Osman I, the founder of the
Ottoman dynasty, assumed leadership of one of these principalities (
Söğüt) in 1281, succeeding his father
Ertuğrul. Declaring an independent Ottoman emirate in 1299, Osman I afterwards led it in a series of battles with the Byzantine Empire.
[82] By 1331, the Ottomans had captured
Nicaea, the former Byzantine capital, under the leadership of Osman's son and successor,
Orhan I.
[83] Victory at the
Battle of Kosovo against the
Serbs in 1389 then facilitated their expansion into Europe. The Ottomans were established in the
Balkans and Anatolia by the time
Bayezid I ascended to power in the same year, now at the helm of a growing empire.
[84]
Growth halted when Mongol warlord
Timur (also known as "
Tamerlane") captured Bayezid I in the
Battle of Ankara in 1402, beginning the
Ottoman Interregnum. This episode was characterized by the division of the Ottoman territory amongst Bayezid I's sons, who submitted to
Timurid authority. When a number of Ottoman territories regained independent status, ruin for the Empire loomed. However, the empire recovered, as the youngest son of Bayezid I,
Mehmed I, waged offensive campaigns against his ruling brothers, thereby reuniting
Asia Minor and declaring himself sultan in 1413.
[31]
Around this time the Ottoman
naval fleet developed, such that they were able to challenge
Venice, a
naval power. They also attempted to reconquer the Balkans. By the time of Mehmed I's grandson,
Mehmed II (ruled 1444 — 1446; 1451 — 1481), the Ottomans could lay siege to
Constantinople, the capital of Byzantium. A factor in this siege was the use of
muskets and large
cannons introduced by the Ottomans. The Byzantine fortress
succumbed in 1453, after 54 days of siege. Mehmed II renamed it
Istanbul. Without its capital the Byzantine Empire disintegrated.
[31] The future successes of the Ottomans and later empires would depend upon the exploitation of
gunpowder.
[78]
In the early 16th century, the Shi'ite
Safavid dynasty assumed control in Persia under the leadership of
Shah Ismail I, defeating the ruling
Turcoman federation
Aq Qoyunlu (also called the "White Sheep Turkomans") in 1501. The Ottoman sultan
Selim I sought to repel Safavid expansion, challenging and defeating them at the
Battle of Chaldiran in 1514. Selim I also deposed the ruling Mamluks in Egypt, absorbing their territories in 1517.
Suleiman I (also known as
Suleiman the Magnificent), Selim I's successor, took advantage of the diversion of Safavid focus to the
Uzbeks on the eastern frontier and recaptured Baghdad, which had fallen under Safavid control. Despite this, Safavid power remained substantial, rivalling the Ottomans. Suleiman I advanced deep into Hungary following the
Battle of Mohács in 1526 —
reaching as far as the gates of Vienna thereafter, and signed a Franco-Ottoman alliance with
Francis I of France against
Charles V of the
Roman Empire 10 years later. Suleiman I's rule (1520 — 1566) was the apex of the Ottoman Empire. The rapid European industrialization thereafter sent it into a relative decline.
[31][85]
[edit]Modern history
Main article:
Modern history
The
modern age brought technological and organizational changes to Europe while the Islamic region continued the patterns of earlier centuries. The
Great Powers globalized economically and
colonized much of the region.
[edit]Ottoman Empire partition
By the end of the 19th century, the Ottoman empire had declined. The decision to back
Germany in
World War I meant they shared the
Central Powers' defeat in that war. The defeat led to the overthrow of the Ottomans by Turkish nationalists led by the victorious general of the
Battle of Gallipoli:
Mustafa Kemal, who became known to his people as Atatürk, "Father of the Turks." Atatürk was credited with renegotiating the
treaty of Sèvres (1920) which ended Turkey's involvement in the war and establishing the modern
Republic of Turkey, which was recognized by the
Allies in the
Treaty of Lausanne (1923). Atatürk went on to implement an ambitious program of modernization that emphasized economic development and
secularization. He transformed Turkish culture to reflect European laws, adopted
Hindu-
Arabic numerals, the
Latin script, separated the religious establishment from the state, and emancipated woman—even giving them the right to vote in parallel with
women's suffrage in the west.
[86]
Following World War I, the vast majority of former Ottoman territory outside of Asia Minor was handed over to the victorious European powers as
protectorates. During the war the Allies had promised the subject peoples independence in exchange for their assistance fighting the Turkish powers. To their dismay, they found that this system of "protectorates" was a smoke-screen for their continued subjugation by the British and the French. The struggles for independence from their Turkish overlords and the cooperation of partisan forces with the British were romanticized in the stories of British secret intelligence agent
T. E. Lawrence—later known as "Lawrence of Arabia."
[87] Ottoman successor states include today's
Albania,
Bosnia and Herzegovina,
Bulgaria, Egypt, Greece, Iraq, Lebanon,
Romania,
Saudi Arabia,
Serbia,
Syria,
Jordan, Turkey, Balkan states, North Africa and the north shore of the
Black Sea.
[88]
Many Muslim countries sought to adopt European political organization and
nationalism began to emerge in the Muslim world. Countries like Egypt, Syria and Turkey organized their governments sought to develop national pride amongst their citizens. Other places, like Iraq, were not as successful due to a lack of unity and an inability to resolve age-old prejudices between Muslim sects and against non-Muslims.
Some Muslim countries, such as Turkey and Egypt, sought to separate Islam from the secular government. In other cases, such as Saudi Arabia, the government brought out religious expression in the re-emergence of the puritanical form of Sunni Islam known to its detractors as
Wahabism, which found its way into the
Saudi royal family.
[edit]Indian partition
The
partition of India refers to the creation in August 1947 of the now sovereign states of India and Pakistan. The two nations were formed out of the former
British Raj, including treaty states, when Britain granted independence to the area (see
Undivided India). In particular, the term refers to the partition of
Bengal and
Punjab, the two main provinces of what would be Pakistan.
[citation needed]
In 1947, after the partition of India, Pakistan became the largest Islamic country in the world (by population) and the tenth largest post-World War II state in the modern world. In 1971, after a bloody war of independence, the Bengal part of Pakistan became an independent state called
Bangladesh. Pakistan in the contemporary era is the second largest Islamic country in the world, following
Indonesia. Pakistan is the only nuclear power among predominantly Muslim nations.
[citation needed]
[edit]Post-1945 era
Between 1953 and 1964,
King Saud reorganized the government of the
monarchy his father,
Ibn Saud, had created. Saudi Arabia's ministries included Communication (1953), Agriculture and Water (1953), Petroleum (1960), Pilgrimage and Islamic Endowments (1960), Labour and Social Affairs (1962) and Information (1963). He also put Talal, one of his many younger brothers (29 years his junior) in charge of the Ministry of Transport.
[citation needed]
In 1958-59, Talal proposed the formation of a National Council. As he proposed it, it would have been a consultative body, not a legislature. Still, he thought of it as a first step toward broader popular participation in the government. Talal presented this proposal to the king when the Crown Prince was out of the country. Saud forwarded the proposal to the
ulama asking them whether a National Council was a legitimate institution in Islam. The idea then disappeared until it was revived more than three decades later. A Consultative Council came into existence in 1992.
[citation needed]
The
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries came into existence in 1960. For the first decade or more of its existence, it was unable to increase revenue for the member nations. Tension between
Faisal and Saud continued to mount until a showdown in 1964. Saud threatened to mobilize the Royal Guard against Faisal and Faisal threatened to mobilize the National Guard against Saud. Saud then abdicated and left for Cairo, then Greece, where he would die in 1969. Faisal then became King.
[citation needed]
The
Six-Day War of June 5–10, 1967, was fought between
Israel and the neighbouring states of Egypt, Jordan, and Syria. It closed the
Suez canal, and may have contributed to the revolution in Libya that put
Muammar al-Gaddafi in power. It led in May 1970 to the closure of the "tapline" from Saudi Arabia through Syria to Lebanon. These developments had the effect of increasing the importance of
petroleum in
Libya, which is a short (and canal-free) shipping distance from Europe.
[citation needed]
In October 1973, another war between Israel and its Muslim neighbors, known as the
Yom Kippur War, broke out just as oil company began meeting with
OPEC leaders. OPEC had been emboldened by the success of Libya's demands and the war strengthened their unity.
[citation needed]
The Arab defeats in 1967 and 1973 triggered the
1973 oil crisis. In response to the emergency resupply effort by the
West that enabled Israel to defeat Egyptian and Syrian forces, the Arab world imposed the 1973 oil embargo against the United States and Western Europe. Faisal agreed that Saudi Arabia would use some of its oil wealth to finance the "front-line states", those that bordered Israel, in their struggle.
[citation needed]
The centrality of petroleum, the
Arab-Israeli Conflict and political and economic instability and uncertainty remain constant features of the politics of the region.
[citation needed]
[edit]Persian revolutions
The
Iranian Constitutional Revolution took place between 1905 and 1911. The revolution marked the beginning of the end of Iran's
feudalistic society and led to the establishment of a parliament in
Persia and the restriction of the power of the
Shah (king). Iran approved its first constitution at this time. The modernist and conservative blocks then began to fight with each other. World War I intervened and all of the combatants invaded Iran. This weakened the government and threatened the country's independence. The
constitutional monarchy created by the decree of
Mozzafar al-Din Shah that was established in
Persia as a result of the Revolution, was damaged in 1925 with the dissolution of the
Qajar dynasty and the ascension of
Reza Shah Pahlavi to the throne.
[citation needed]
In 1979 the
Iranian Revolution transformed
Iran from a constitutional monarchy, under Shah
Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, to a
populisttheocratic Islamic republic under the rule of
Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, a Shi`i Muslim cleric and
marja. Following the Revolution, and a new constitution was approved and a referendum established the government, electing Ruhollah Khomeini as
Supreme Leader. During the following two years, liberals, leftists, and Islamic groups fought each other, and the Islamics captured power. At the same time, the U.S., the USSR, and most of the Arab governments of the Middle East feared that their dominance in the region would be challenged by the Islamic ideology, so they encouraged and supported
Saddam Hussein to invade Iran, which resulted in the
Iran-Iraq war.
[citation needed]
[edit]National period
| Contemporary National period |
|---|
Islam in the modern world
Sunni countries
Shia countries
Ibadi countries
|
[edit]Arab-Israeli conflict
The Arab-Israeli conflict spans about a century of political tensions and open hostilities. It involves the establishment of the modern
State of Israel as a
Jewish nation state, the consequent
displacement of the
Palestinian people, as well as the adverse relationship between the
Arabnations and the state of Israel (see related
Israeli-Palestinian conflict). Despite at first involving only the Arab states bordering Israel, animosity has also developed between other
Muslim nations and Israel. Many countries, individuals and non-governmental organizations elsewhere in the world feel involved in this conflict for reasons such as cultural and religious ties with Islam,
Arab culture,
Christianity,
Judaism,
Jewish culture or for ideological,
human rights, or strategic reasons. While some consider the Arab-Israeli conflict a part of (or a precursor to) a wider
clash of civilizations between the
Western World and the Arab or
Muslim world,
[89][90] others oppose this view.
[91] Animosity emanating from this conflict has caused numerous attacks on supporters (or perceived supporters) of each side by supporters of the other side in many countries around the world.
[edit]Anatolian region
Since the establishment of the
Republic of Turkey in 1923, there has been a strong tradition of
secularism in Turkey established and institutionalized by
Atatürk's Reforms. Although the First Grand National Assembly of Turkey had rallied support from the population for the Independence War against the occupying forces on behalf of Islamic principles, Islam was omitted from the public sphere after the Independence War. The principle of secularism was thus inserted in the Turkish Constitution as late as 1937. This legal action was assisted by stringent state policies against domestic Islamist groups and establishments to neutralize the strong appeal of Islam in Turkish society. Even though an overwhelming majority of the population, at least nominally, adheres to
Islam in Turkey, the state, which was established with the
Kemalist ideology has no
official religion nor promotes any and it monitors the area between the religions using the
Presidency of Religious Affairs. The
Republic Protests were a series of mass rallies by Turkish secular citizens that took place in Turkey in 2007. The target of the first protest was the possible presidential candidacy of the Prime Minister
Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, afraid that if elected President of Turkey Erdoğan would alter the
Turkish secularist state.
[edit]Arab Spring
Main article:
Arab Spring
In the Near East and North Africa, a series of protests and demonstrations calling for democracy and freedom across the region became known as the
Arab Spring. The protests, uprisings and revolutions brought about the overthrow of the Tunisian and Egyptian governments. The period of political liberalization also affected countries that were not part of the
Arab world.
[edit]See also
![[icon]](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg){kind=small}
